Harold Garfinkel (1917-2011) was an American sociologist who founded the field of ethnomethodology. He is known for his innovative approach to social science research, which focused on understanding how individuals produce and maintain social order through everyday interactions.
Garfinkel argued that social order is not simply a given reality that we all accept; it is something that we actively create and maintain through our everyday actions. He called this process of creating and maintaining social order ethnomethodology, which literally means “the method of the people”.
Garfinkel’s research methodology involved conducting breaching experiments, in which he would deliberately violate social norms and expectations to see how people would react. For example, he would ask people to repeat the same phrase over and over again, or he would ask them to describe their everyday activities in very precise and detailed terms.
By observing how people responded to these breaches, Garfinkel was able to uncover the taken-for-granted assumptions and rules that underlie social order. He found that people are very sensitive to disruptions in their social world, and that they will go to great lengths to maintain order and predictability.
Garfinkel’s work had a profound impact on sociology and other disciplines, such as anthropology, linguistics, and philosophy. His insights have been used to understand a wide range of phenomena, including language, gender, race, and class.
Here are some of Garfinkel’s key concepts:
Indexicality: This is the idea that meaning is not fixed or stable, but is instead dependent on the context in which it is used.
Frame analysis: This is the process of interpreting social situations based on our understanding of the context and the roles of the individuals involved.
Facework: This is the process of managing our impressions and maintaining our social standing in interactions.
Moratorium: This is a temporary suspension of social norms and expectations, which can occur in situations such as play or ritual.
Demarcating: This is the process of marking the boundaries of social interactions, which can be done through physical spaces, temporal markers, or linguistic cues.
Garfinkel’s work continues to be relevant and influential today, as it provides a critical and nuanced perspective on the social world. His insights can help us to understand how we create and maintain social order, and how we can challenge and change the social structures that shape our lives.
Books
Here are some of Harold Garfinkel’s most influential books:
Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967): Garfinkel’s magnum opus, this book lays out the foundation of ethnomethodology and introduces his key concepts, such as indexicality, frame analysis, and facework.
Ethnomethodology’s Program: Working Out Durkheim’s Aphorism (1972): In this book, Garfinkel explores the relationship between ethnomethodology and Durkheim’s sociological theory, arguing that ethnomethodology can provide a more nuanced and grounded understanding of social order.
Forms of Talk (1974): This book examines the ways in which we use language to construct and maintain social order. Garfinkel analyzes a variety of everyday conversations, including courtroom proceedings, doctor-patient interactions, and religious services.
The Interaction Order: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (1983): This collection of essays revisits and expands upon Garfinkel’s earlier work on face-to-face interaction, offering a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the social dynamics that underpin our everyday interactions.
Contested Order: Essays on Law and Social Order (1990): In this book, Garfinkel explores the relationship between law and social order, arguing that both are constantly negotiated and contested in everyday life.
Interaction Ritual Revisited (2014): Garfinkel revisited and expanded upon his earlier work on face-to-face interaction in this book, offering a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the rituals that underpin social life.
Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967)
In his seminal work Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967), Harold Garfinkel laid the foundation of ethnomethodology, a sociological approach that examines how individuals create and maintain social order through everyday interactions. He argued that social order is not a fixed or stable entity, but is instead a dynamic and constantly negotiated process.
Garfinkel’s central argument is that social order is not simply a product of social norms and rules, but is also actively constructed and maintained by individuals through their everyday actions. He called this process indexicality, which refers to the fact that meaning is not fixed or stable, but is instead dependent on the context in which it is used.
To demonstrate this point, Garfinkel conducted a series of breaching experiments, in which he deliberately violated social norms and expectations in order to see how people would react. For example, he asked people to repeat the same phrase over and over again, or he asked them to describe their everyday activities in very precise and detailed terms.
By observing how people responded to these breaches, Garfinkel was able to uncover the taken-for-granted assumptions and rules that underlie social order. He found that people are very sensitive to disruptions in their social world, and that they will go to great lengths to maintain order and predictability.
Garfinkel’s work on frame analysis also highlighted the importance of context in interpreting social interactions. He argued that we constantly frame our interactions by using cues such as language, gestures, and nonverbal communication to signal to others what kind of situation we are in.
Garfinkel’s ideas about facework also shed light on the ways in which we manage our impressions and maintain our social standing in interactions. He argued that we engage in a variety of strategies, such as politeness, deference, and humor, to manage our face in social situations.
Garfinkel’s work on moratorium and demarcating also highlighted the importance of context and boundaries in social interactions. He argued that we can temporarily suspend social norms and expectations in situations such as play or ritual, and that we mark the boundaries of social interactions through physical spaces, temporal markers, or linguistic cues.
Garfinkel’s work on ethnomethodology continues to be highly influential and relevant today. His insights have been used to understand a wide range of phenomena, including language, gender, race, and class. His work has also been applied to a variety of fields, such as education, healthcare, and organizational studies.
Ethnomethodology's Program: Working Out Durkheim's Aphorism (1972)
In his book Ethnomethodology’s Program: Working Out Durkheim’s Aphorism (1972), Harold Garfinkel explores the relationship between ethnomethodology and Durkheim’s sociological theory. He argues that ethnomethodology can provide a more nuanced and grounded understanding of social order than is possible through Durkheim’s macro-sociological approach.
Garfinkel identifies several key concepts from Durkheim’s work that are relevant to ethnomethodology:
Social facts: Durkheim argued that social facts are external to individuals and have a constraining effect on their behavior. Garfinkel argues that ethnomethodology can show how social facts are actually produced and maintained through everyday interactions.
The collective conscience: Durkheim argued that the collective conscience is the shared set of norms, values, and beliefs that bind a society together. Garfinkel argues that ethnomethodology can show how the collective conscience is actually created and maintained through everyday interactions.
Social solidarity: Durkheim argued that social solidarity is the glue that holds a society together. Garfinkel argues that ethnomethodology can show how social solidarity is actually achieved and maintained through everyday interactions.
Garfinkel also argues that ethnomethodology can help to bridge the gap between micro-sociology and macro-sociology. He argues that ethnomethodology can provide a more micro-level understanding of social order that can then be used to inform macro-sociological analysis.
Overall, Garfinkel’s work in Ethnomethodology’s Program demonstrates the potential of ethnomethodology to provide a more nuanced and grounded understanding of social order than is possible through Durkheim’s macro-sociological approach. His insights have had a significant impact on sociology and other disciplines, such as anthropology, linguistics, and philosophy.
Here are some additional key points from Garfinkel’s work in Ethnomethodology’s Program:
Ethnomethodology is a “documentary method of interpretation”. This means that we use our knowledge of social norms and structures to interpret everyday interactions.
Ethnomethodology is a “naturalistic” method of inquiry. This means that we study social order in its natural setting, without imposing any artificial constraints.
Ethnomethodology is a “radical” method of inquiry. This means that it challenges the taken-for-granted assumptions about social order.
Garfinkel’s work in Ethnomethodology’s Program is a classic of sociological literature. His insights continue to be relevant and influential today, as we continue to strive to understand the nature of social order.