Erwin Goffman was a Canadian-American sociologist who made significant contributions to social psychology and the sociology of everyday life. He is best known for his dramaturgical theory, which examines social interaction as a performance.
Dramaturgical theory is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of impression management in social interaction. Goffman argued that we all act as performers on a stage, carefully managing our self-presentation in order to achieve specific goals. He identified three key elements of dramaturgical interaction:
- Frontstage: The frontstage is the area where we present ourselves to others and try to project a favorable image.
- Backstage: The backstage is the area where we relax, let down our guard, and engage in unscripted behavior.
- Performance: The performance is the process of managing our self-presentation in order to achieve our goals.
Here are some of the key concepts in Goffman’s dramaturgical theory:
- Face: Face is our public image or self-presentation.
- Facework: Facework is the process of maintaining or restoring face.
- Impression management: Impression management is the process of controlling how others perceive us.
- Role-taking: Role-taking is the process of understanding and adopting the perspective of others.
- Role distance: Role distance is the ability to step back from our roles and see them from a detached perspective.
- Frame: A frame is a set of expectations that we use to interpret and make sense of our social interactions.
- Keynote: The keynote is the dominant tone or mood of an interaction.
- Focus: The focus is the object of our attention and interest in an interaction.
Goffman’s dramaturgical theory has been widely influential in sociology and social psychology. It has been used to analyze a wide range of social phenomena, including everyday interactions, social organizations, and mass media.
Here are some examples of how Goffman’s dramaturgical theory has been applied:
- Courtroom trials: Lawyers and witnesses carefully manage their self-presentation in order to influence the jury’s decision.
- Job interviews: Job seekers carefully present themselves in order to make a positive impression on potential employers.
- Social media: People use social media to project carefully crafted images of themselves to the world.
- Reality television: Reality TV shows provide a voyeuristic glimpse into the backstage of people’s lives.
Goffman’s dramaturgical theory is a valuable tool for understanding the social dynamics of everyday life. It provides a lens through which we can see how we present ourselves to others, manage our impressions, and navigate the complexities of social interaction.
Books
- The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959): This is Goffman’s most famous work, and it outlines his dramaturgical theory.
- Behavior in Public Places (1963): This book examines the social norms and conventions that govern our behavior in public spaces.
- Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (1967): This book explores the micro-level dynamics of social interaction.
- Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963): This book examines the social consequences of having a stigmatized identity.
- Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (1974): This book explores the ways in which we organize our experiences and make sense of the world around us.
- Gender Advertisements (1979): This book analyzes the ways in which gender is represented in advertising.
- Forms of Talk (1981): This book examines the different ways in which we use language in social interaction.
- The Interaction Order: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (1983): This book collects Goffman’s essays on micro-sociology.
- Goffman’s Sociology: A Reader (1986): This book is an edited collection of Goffman’s essays.
- Contested Order: Essays on Law and Social Order (1990): This book explores the relationship between law and social order.
- The Goffman Reader (1997): This book is another edited collection of Goffman’s essays.
- Interaction Ritual Revisited (2014): This book is a revised and expanded edition of Goffman’s 1967 book of the same name.
The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959)
In his seminal work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Erving Goffman argues that human social interaction can be understood as a form of ritualized performance, analogous to a play or theatrical production. He proposes that individuals act as performers, carefully managing their self-presentation in order to create and maintain a desired impression on others. This process of impression management is crucial for navigating the complexities of social life and achieving our desired goals.
Goffman identifies three key elements of social interaction that contribute to this dramaturgical perspective:
Frontstage: This is the area where we present ourselves to others and try to project a favorable image. We carefully control our behavior, appearance, and speech in order to maintain a consistent and positive self-presentation.
Backstage: This is the area where we relax, let down our guard, and engage in unscripted behavior. We can be more authentic and less self-conscious in these settings, as we are not subject to the same scrutiny and expectations as in frontstage interactions.
Performance: This is the process of managing our self-presentation in order to achieve our goals. We carefully select and present the appropriate props, costumes, and scripts in order to maintain our desired image and influence the perceptions of others.
Goffman further develops this dramaturgical analogy by introducing the concept of face, which he defines as our public image or self-presentation. He argues that maintaining face is essential for social interaction, as it allows us to preserve our dignity and maintain positive relationships with others. When our face is threatened or challenged, we engage in facework, which are strategies that we use to restore or maintain our public image.
Goffman’s dramaturgical theory has had a profound impact on sociology and social psychology, providing a powerful framework for understanding the social dynamics of everyday life. It has been used to analyze a wide range of social phenomena, including:
- The use of etiquette and social norms to maintain face
- The ways in which we manage our self-presentation in different social settings
- The role of impression management in achieving our goals
- The challenges of maintaining face in conflictual or embarrassing situations
- The ways in which social hierarchies and power dynamics are reflected in our performances
Goffman’s work is still relevant and influential today, as it provides a nuanced and insightful perspective on the complex social world in which we live. His dramaturgical theory reminds us that social interaction is not simply about conveying information or exchanging resources; it is also about crafting and maintaining our public identities, navigating the expectations of others, and achieving our desired social outcomes.
Behavior in Public Places (1963)
In his book Behavior in Public Places, Erving Goffman explores the social norms and conventions that govern our behavior in public spaces, such as restaurants, parks, and streets. He argues that these spaces are characterized by a unique set of social expectations and constraints, which we must navigate in order to maintain order and avoid social disruption.
Goffman identifies four key principles that govern behavior in public places:
Audience segregation: We tend to segregate ourselves into groups with similar interests or activities, avoiding interactions with those who we perceive as different or threatening.
Territorial etiquette: We respect the boundaries of others, avoiding invasion of personal space and maintaining a sense of order in public areas.
Rapport maintenance: We interact with others in a way that maintains a sense of mutual respect and avoids conflict or confrontation.
Information control: We manage the information that we reveal to others in public, carefully selecting what to disclose and what to conceal.
Goffman argues that these principles are essential for maintaining order and civility in public places, as they allow us to coexist peacefully with others while pursuing our individual goals. He further suggests that these norms are constantly negotiated and renegotiated in real-time, as individuals adapt their behavior to the specific social context and the people they encounter.
Goffman’s work on public behavior has been influential in a variety of fields, including sociology, social psychology, and urban planning. His insights into the social dynamics of public spaces have helped us to better understand the complexities of human interaction and the factors that contribute to social order and disruption.
Here are some specific examples of how Goffman’s ideas have been applied:
Designing public spaces: Architects and urban planners can use Goffman’s insights to design spaces that are more conducive to social interaction and less likely to lead to conflict.
Managing public events: Event planners can use Goffman’s principles to ensure that events are well-organized and that attendees feel safe and respected.
Providing public services: Government agencies can use Goffman’s ideas to design public services in a way that is more user-friendly and respectful of individual privacy.
Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (1967)
In his book Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior, Erving Goffman delves into the intricate dynamics of face-to-face interactions, examining the subtle cues and unspoken rules that govern our everyday encounters. He argues that these interactions are not merely transactional exchanges but rather complex social rituals that shape our self-perceptions and our understanding of the world around us.
Goffman identifies several key concepts that underpin his analysis of face-to-face interactions:
Face: Face is our public image or self-presentation, the sense of dignity and social worth that we project to others. Maintaining face is crucial for preserving our self-esteem and avoiding social embarrassment.
Facework: Facework refers to the strategies we employ to maintain or restore face for ourselves and others. These strategies can include politeness, apologies, compliments, and other forms of nonverbal communication.
Mutual monitoring: Goffman emphasizes the importance of mutual monitoring in face-to-face interactions. We constantly observe each other’s behavior, facial expressions, and other nonverbal cues to assess the situation and adjust our own behavior accordingly.
Frame analysis: Goffman introduces the concept of frame analysis, which refers to the way we organize and interpret our experiences. He argues that we frame social interactions in order to make sense of them and to guide our behavior.
Conversational devices: Goffman examines the various conversational devices we use to maintain social order and avoid awkwardness or disagreement. These devices include turn-taking mechanisms, topic management, and the use of humor and polite expressions.
Goffman’s work on face-to-face interactions has had a profound impact on sociology, social psychology, and communication studies. His insights into the micro-level dynamics of social interaction have helped us to understand how we maintain our sense of self, negotiate the complexities of social life, and create a sense of shared reality with others.
Here are some specific examples of how Goffman’s ideas have been applied:
Telephone etiquette: Goffman’s insights into facework and mutual monitoring have been applied to the development of telephone etiquette guidelines.
Computer-mediated communication: Goffman’s concepts of frame analysis and conversational devices have been applied to the study of online communication and virtual communities.
Therapist-client interactions: Goffman’s ideas about maintaining face and managing impressions have been used to improve the effectiveness of therapeutic interactions.
Public speaking: Goffman’s insights into audience segregation and information control have been used to train public speakers and improve their delivery.
Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963)
In his book Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963), Erving Goffman explores the social consequences of having a stigmatized identity. He defines stigma as an attribute that is deeply discrediting, meaning that it is associated with negative stereotypes and social disapproval. Individuals with stigmatized identities are often marginalized and excluded from mainstream society.
Goffman identifies three key types of stigma:
Master status: This is the primary identity that defines an individual and is often based on a stigmatized characteristic, such as race, gender, or disability.
Temporarily spoiled identity: This is an identity that is temporarily discredited, such as when someone is arrested or experiences a public shaming.
Individually acquired stigma: This is a stigma that is not inherent to an individual’s identity but is acquired through factors such as illness, addiction, or criminal behavior.
Goffman argues that individuals with stigmatized identities must engage in stigma management in order to navigate social interactions and maintain a sense of dignity. This can involve strategies such as concealment, passing, and disclosure.
Concealed stigma: This is a strategy of hiding a stigmatized identity from others. Individuals may use physical appearance, self-presentation, or social avoidance to conceal their stigma.
Passing: This is a strategy of pretending to be a member of the non-stigmatized group. Individuals may adopt the mannerisms, language, and social cues of the non-stigmatized group in order to avoid being identified as stigmatized.
Disclosure: This is a strategy of revealing a stigmatized identity to others. This can be a risky strategy, but it can also be empowering for individuals who feel that they are living a lie.
Goffman emphasizes that stigma is not simply a personal attribute but is also a social construct that is created and perpetuated by society. He argues that we must challenge the stigma associated with different identities in order to create a more inclusive and equitable society.
Goffman’s work on stigma has had a profound impact on sociology, social psychology, and healthcare. His insights have helped us to understand the social and psychological consequences of stigma and to develop strategies for combating stigma.
Here are some specific examples of how Goffman’s ideas have been applied:
Public health: Goffman’s work has been used to develop public health campaigns to reduce stigma associated with diseases such as HIV/AIDS, mental illness, and addiction.
Education: Goffman’s insights have been incorporated into curricula and training programs to help educators better understand and address the needs of students from stigmatized groups.
Social policy: Goffman’s work has informed social policy debates on issues such as disability rights, criminal justice reform, and anti-discrimination laws.
Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (1974)
In his book Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience, Erving Goffman introduced the concept of frame analysis, which refers to the way we organize and interpret our experiences in order to make sense of the world around us. He argues that we frame our experiences using a set of shared cultural understandings and expectations.
Goffman identifies six key elements of frames:
Keynote: This is the dominant tone or mood of an interaction. It sets the stage for how we interpret and respond to the situation.
Focus: This is the object of our attention and interest in an interaction. It is what we are trying to understand or achieve.
Bracketing: This is the process of distinguishing between different frames. It allows us to switch between different ways of seeing and interpreting the world.
Fabrication: This is the process of creating and maintaining frames. It involves using language, symbols, and other cues to signal to others how we want them to interpret the situation.
Keying: This is the process of altering or modifying a frame. It allows us to change the meaning of an event or interaction.
Engrossment: This is the state of being completely absorbed in a frame. It is when we are so focused on the situation at hand that we are unaware of anything else.
Goffman argues that frames are essential for our ability to make sense of the world and to navigate our social interactions. They allow us to interpret events, predict outcomes, and make decisions. However, he also cautions that frames can be manipulated and exploited, and that we can sometimes become trapped in inappropriate frames.
Goffman’s work on frame analysis has had a profound impact on sociology, social psychology, and communication studies. His insights have helped us to understand how we make sense of the world around us, how we communicate with others, and how we can be more effective in our social interactions.
Here are some specific examples of how Goffman’s ideas have been applied:
Media studies: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze how the media frames news events and social issues.
Marketing and advertising: Goffman’s insights have been used to develop marketing campaigns and advertising messages that are more effective in reaching target audiences.
Negotiation: Goffman’s work has been used to train negotiators to frame their arguments and proposals in a way that is more persuasive.
Conflict resolution: Goffman’s insights have been used to help mediators and negotiators to resolve conflicts by reframing the issues at stake.
What is Frame Analysis
Goffman argued that we all use frames to organize our experiences and make sense of the world around us. Frames are cognitive structures that help us to interpret events, people, and situations. They provide us with a set of expectations and understandings that allow us to make sense of the world in a meaningful way.
There are three main types of frames:
Master frames: Master frames are broad and general frameworks that provide a comprehensive understanding of a particular issue or topic. For example, the frame of “terrorism” is a master frame that encompasses a variety of specific events and actors.
Issue frames: Issue frames are narrower than master frames and are focused on a particular issue or problem. For example, the frame of “gun control” is an issue frame that is focused on the regulation of firearms.
Individual frames: Individual frames are the most specific type of frame and are created by individuals to make sense of their own experiences. For example, an individual’s frame of “work” may be different from another individual’s frame of “work” depending on their personal experiences and beliefs.
Frame analysis can be used to study a wide range of topics, including:
News media: Frame analysis can be used to examine how news media organizations frame events and issues.
Social movements: Frame analysis can be used to understand how social movements develop and articulate their goals.
Political communication: Frame analysis can be used to examine how politicians and other political actors frame their messages.
Consumer behavior: Frame analysis can be used to understand how consumers make decisions about products and services.
Organizational communication: Frame analysis can be used to examine how organizations communicate with their employees, customers, and other stakeholders.
Frame analysis is a powerful tool for understanding how we make sense of the world. It can be used to identify the frames that we use to interpret events, people, and situations, and to understand how these frames can shape our behavior.
Gender Advertisements (1979)
In his book Gender Advertisements (1979), Erving Goffman examines the way that gender is represented in advertising. He argues that advertising is a powerful tool that can reinforce and perpetuate gender stereotypes.
Goffman identifies several key features of gender advertising:
Asymmetry: Men are typically portrayed as being active, powerful, and independent, while women are portrayed as being passive, submissive, and dependent.
Homogenization: Men are often shown as being interchangeable, while women are more likely to be differentiated by their physical appearance.
Essentialism: Gender roles are presented as being natural and inevitable, rather than as social constructs.
Objectification: Women are often portrayed as objects of desire, rather than as complex and multifaceted individuals.
Goffman argues that gender advertising has a number of negative consequences, including:
Limiting women’s career aspirations
Promoting violence against women
Encouraging eating disorders
Harming children’s self-esteem
Goffman’s work on gender advertisements has been influential in the field of feminist theory and has contributed to the understanding of how advertising reinforces gender inequality.
Here are some specific examples of how Goffman’s ideas have been applied:
Advertising campaigns: Goffman’s insights have been used to develop advertising campaigns that challenge gender stereotypes and promote more positive images of women.
Gender studies: Goffman’s work has been used to teach students about the representation of gender in the media.
Legal cases: Goffman’s work has been cited in legal cases involving gender discrimination in advertising.
Public policy: Goffman’s work has been used to inform public policy debates on the regulation of advertising.
Goffman’s work on gender advertisements continues to be a valuable resource for anyone who seeks to understand the representation of gender in the media and to challenge gender stereotypes. His insights can help us to create a more just and equitable society for all.
Forms of Talk (1981)
In his book Forms of Talk: An Essay on the Organization of Experience, Erving Goffman examines the various ways in which we use language in social interaction. He argues that language is not merely a tool for conveying information but is also a social resource that we use to construct and maintain our identities, manage our impressions, and navigate the complexities of social life.
Goffman identifies several key forms of talk:
Replies and Responses: This is the way we respond to questions and invitations. We use replies and responses to maintain the flow of conversation and to signal our interest or disinterest in the topic at hand.
Footing: This is the relationship between speaker, utterance, and audience. We use footing to negotiate our roles and identities in social interactions. For example, we may adopt a different footing when talking to a friend than when talking to a professor.
The lecture: This is a form of talk that is used to impart knowledge or skills. Lectures are typically structured and organized, and they are often delivered by experts or authority figures.
The encounter: This is a form of talk that is used to establish and maintain relationships. Encounters are typically more informal and spontaneous than lectures, and they are often used to build rapport or negotiate social norms.
Goffman argues that the way we use language in social interaction is shaped by a number of factors, including our social status, our personal beliefs, and the norms of the particular social group we are in. He also argues that language is a powerful tool that can be used to manipulate and control others.
Goffman’s work on forms of talk has had a profound impact on sociology, social psychology, and linguistics. His insights have helped us to understand how we use language to build and maintain relationships, negotiate social norms, and manage our identities.
Here are some specific examples of how Goffman’s ideas have been applied:
Political rhetoric: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the way that politicians use language to persuade and manipulate the public.
Advertising: Goffman’s insights have been used to develop more effective persuasive advertising campaigns.
Literary analysis: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the way that language is used to create and maintain characters and settings in fiction.
Social work: Goffman’s work has been used to train social workers to communicate more effectively with clients.
The Interaction Order: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (1983)
In his book The Interaction Order: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (1983), Erving Goffman compiled a collection of his essays on face-to-face interaction, exploring the intricate social dynamics that shape our everyday encounters. He emphasized that social life is fundamentally organized around face-to-face interactions, and that these interactions are governed by a set of implicit rules and expectations.
Goffman’s central argument is that face-to-face interactions are not simply about exchanging information or fulfilling instrumental goals; they are also about managing our identities, maintaining social order, and creating a sense of shared reality.
He identifies several key concepts that underpin his analysis of face-to-face interactions:
Territory: We establish and maintain boundaries around our physical and social space, marking out what is considered our own and what is considered public.
Demeanor: We regulate our facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice in order to project a desired image and maintain social order.
Conversational etiquette: We follow unspoken rules of turn-taking, topic management, and politeness to ensure smooth and harmonious interactions.
Dramaturgy: We act as performers on a stage, managing our self-presentation in order to achieve our desired goals.
Frame analysis: We interpret social situations and interactions based on our understanding of the social context and the roles of the individuals involved.
Goffman argues that these concepts are not just abstract ideas but are actively employed by individuals in their everyday interactions. We constantly monitor and adjust our behavior in response to the social cues and expectations of others. This process of social interaction is not always smooth, and there are times when conflicts arise and social order is threatened. However, Goffman argues that we have a deep-seated need for social order and that we employ various strategies to maintain it.
Goffman's Sociology: A Reader (1986)
In his book Goffman’s Sociology: A Reader (1986), edited by Paul Rock, a collection of Erving Goffman’s essays are compiled to provide a comprehensive overview of his work on social interaction. The book covers a wide range of topics, including dramaturgy, framing, and impression management, all of which are central to Goffman’s understanding of social life.
Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective, which views social life as a performance, is one of his most influential contributions to sociology. He argues that we all act as performers in social situations, managing our appearance, behavior, and self-presentation in order to project a desired image to others. This process of impression management is essential for maintaining social order and achieving our desired social outcomes.
Goffman’s concept of framing is another key element of his sociological theory. He argues that we all use framing devices to interpret and make sense of our social experiences. These framing devices can be based on our cultural beliefs, social norms, and personal experiences. They help us to categorize and understand the events and interactions we encounter in our daily lives.
Goffman’s work on impression management and framing has been applied to a wide range of social phenomena, including:
Media studies: Goffman’s insights have been used to analyze the way that media representations shape our understanding of social reality.
Advertising: Goffman’s work has been used to develop more effective advertising campaigns that appeal to our social needs and desires.
Law and criminology: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the way that social stigma and labeling can shape our perceptions of criminals and offenders.
Health and medicine: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the social dynamics of healthcare settings, such as hospitals and doctor’s offices.
Goffman’s work on social interaction continues to be relevant and influential today, as it provides a nuanced and insightful perspective on the complex and often subtle ways in which we navigate social situations and maintain social order. His insights can help us to understand and improve our own social interactions, and to develop more effective strategies for communication and conflict resolution.
Contested Order: Essays on Law and Social Order (1990)
In his book Contested Order: Essays on Law and Social Order (1990), Erving Goffman explores the relationship between law and social order, arguing that both are constantly negotiated and contested in everyday life. He examines how law is used to regulate social behavior, maintain social order, and resolve conflicts.
Goffman argues that law is not a static or rigid set of rules but is instead a dynamic and ever-changing institution that reflects the changing social order. He emphasizes that law is not always applied fairly or consistently, and that it is often used to reinforce existing power structures and inequalities.
Goffman’s work on law and social order has been applied to a wide range of social phenomena, including:
The criminal justice system: Goffman’s insights have been used to analyze the way that the criminal justice system can reinforce social inequalities and stigma.
The legal profession: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the way that lawyers use language and argumentation to shape legal outcomes.
Social movements: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the way that social movements use legal strategies to challenge and change the social order.
International law: Goffman’s work has been used to analyze the way that international law is used to regulate relationships between states and to maintain global order.
Goffman’s work on law and social order continues to be relevant and influential today, as it provides a critical perspective on the role of law in maintaining social order and perpetuating social inequalities. His insights can help us to understand the dynamics of power and authority in legal settings, and to develop more just and equitable legal systems.
Interaction Ritual Revisited (2014)
In his book Interaction Ritual Revisited (2014), Erving Goffman revisited and expanded upon his earlier work on face-to-face interaction, offering a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the rituals that underpin social life. He argued that these rituals are not just about maintaining social order but are also about creating a sense of shared reality and building relationships.
Goffman identified several key aspects of interaction rituals:
Mutual monitoring: Goffman emphasizes that we are constantly monitoring and adjusting our behavior in response to the social cues and expectations of others. This process of mutual monitoring is essential for maintaining social order and for ensuring that our interactions are perceived as being appropriate and meaningful.
Frame alignment: Goffman argues that we use frame alignment devices to ensure that our interactions are experienced as being coherent and meaningful. These devices can include language, gestures, and nonverbal cues.
Ritual brackets: Goffman introduces the concept of ritual brackets to describe the ways in which we mark the boundaries of social interactions. These brackets can be physical spaces, temporal markers, or linguistic cues.
Self-abasement: Goffman acknowledges that interaction rituals can sometimes involve self-abasement, or the willingness to lower one’s social status in order to maintain the smooth flow of interaction. This can be seen in situations like apologizing for a faux pas or giving way to someone in a crowded space.
Moments of rapport: Goffman highlights the moments of rapport that can occur in interaction rituals, where individuals feel a sense of connection and shared understanding. These moments can be fleeting or long-lasting, but they are essential for building relationships and creating a sense of community.
Goffman’s work on interaction rituals has been applied to a wide range of social phenomena, including:
Health and medicine: Goffman’s insights have been used to analyze the social dynamics of healthcare settings, such as hospitals and doctor’s offices.
Customer service: Goffman’s work has been used to develop more effective customer service strategies that focus on creating a sense of rapport and trust.
Education: Goffman’s work has been used to create more effective teaching and learning environments that foster a sense of community and shared learning.
Online communication: Goffman’s insights have been applied to the study of online communication, particularly the use of emojis, emoticons, and other nonverbal cues to create a sense of rapport in virtual interactions.
Goffman’s work on interaction rituals continues to be relevant and influential today, as it provides a deeper understanding of the social dynamics that underpin our everyday interactions. His insights can help us to navigate social situations more effectively, build stronger relationships, and create more inclusive and equitable communities.