Interpretive Approaches, Constructivism (Berger and Luckmann), Pragmatism (George Herbert Mead), Post-structuralism (Foucault, Lyotard)
(e.g. Weber, Schütz, Mead, Berger and Luckmann, Foucault, Latour, Baudrillard)
Interpretative approach
The interpretive approach in sociology is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the subjective understanding of social life. It is based on the idea that social reality is constructed through the meanings that people give to their experiences.
Key tenets of the interpretive approach:
Social reality is subjective: The interpretive approach rejects the notion that there is a single, objective reality that can be understood through scientific methods. Instead, it argues that social reality is fluid and constantly being constructed through the meanings that people give to their experiences.
Meaning is created through interactions: The interpretive approach emphasizes the importance of interactions in the creation of meaning. It argues that people negotiate meaning through their interactions with others, and that these interactions shape the way they understand the world.
Language is a tool for meaning-making: The interpretive approach recognizes the importance of language in the construction of meaning. It argues that language is not simply a tool for communication, but also a way of making sense of the world.
Social actors are active participants: The interpretive approach views social actors as active participants in the construction of social reality. It argues that people do not passively accept the meanings that are imposed on them, but instead actively interpret and negotiate their own meanings.
Methods used in the interpretive approach:
Qualitative research: The interpretive approach relies heavily on qualitative research methods, such as participant observation, interviews, and focus groups. These methods allow researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experiences of social actors.
Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that is particularly well-suited to the interpretive approach. It involves developing theories from data that is collected through qualitative research methods.
Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics is a method of interpretation that is often used in the interpretive approach. It involves interpreting the meaning of texts, symbols, and other forms of communication.
Examples of the interpretive approach in sociology:
Symbolic interactionism: This is a microsociological theory that focuses on the role of symbols in the construction of meaning. Symbolic interactionists argue that people use symbols to define themselves and their relationships to others. They also argue that meaning is created through the interactions between people.(George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, Arlie Hochschild)
Phenomenology: This is a philosophical approach that focuses on the experience of the individual. Phenomenologists argue that people’s understanding of the world is shaped by their own experiences and perceptions. They also argue that people actively interpret their experiences in order to make sense of the world.( Alfred Schutz, Erving Goffman, Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, Charles Taylor, Pierre Bourdieu, Luc Boltanski)
Ethnomethodology: This is a microsociological theory that focuses on the everyday practices of social actors. Ethnomethodologists argue that people use their knowledge of social norms and rules to create order and meaning in their lives. They also argue that people use these practices to negotiate their identities and social relationships. (Harold Garfinkel, Donna Haraway, Arlie Hochschild)
Postmodernism: This is a broad philosophical movement that challenges traditional notions of truth, knowledge, and meaning. Postmodernists argue that there is no single, objective reality, and that meaning is always subjective and fluid. They also argue that there is no such thing as a universal human experience, and that all experiences are shaped by the social and cultural context in which they occur. (Michel Foucault, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Zygmunt Bauman, Judith Butler)
Poststructuralism: This is a branch of postmodernism that focuses on the role of language in the construction of meaning. Poststructuralists argue that language is not a neutral tool for communication, but rather a system of signs that can be used to create meaning. They also argue that meaning is always contested and unstable, and that there is no single, authoritative interpretation of any text or symbol. (Michel Foucault, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard)
Constructivism
Social reality is constructed, not given. This means that the world around us is not simply there to be discovered, but it is actively created and shaped by our interactions and understandings.
Individuals are active participants in the construction of social reality. We do not passively accept the world as it is presented to us, but we actively interpret and make sense of our experiences.
Language and symbols are central to the construction of social reality. We use language and symbols to communicate with each other, but they also shape our understanding of the world and our place in it.
Knowledge is always situated and partial. This means that our knowledge of the world is always limited by our own experiences and perspectives. There is no such thing as a single, objective truth.
Social change is possible. If social reality is constructed, then it can also be reconstructed. We can change the world by changing the way we think about it and the way we interact with it.
Constructivism has been influential in a wide range of social sciences, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education. It has been used to study a variety of topics, including social identity, gender roles, and the nature of knowledge.
Here are some of the key figures in the development of constructivism:
Lev Vygotsky: A Russian psychologist who developed the theory of social constructivism. He argued that children learn through social interaction with others.
Piaget: A Swiss psychologist who developed the theory of cognitive constructivism. He argued that children construct knowledge through their own experiences and interactions with the world.
Gergen: An American social psychologist who has been a leading proponent of social constructivism. He has argued that the self is a social construction, and that there is no such thing as an essential self.
Berger and Luckmann: Austrian-American sociologists who wrote the influential book “The Social Construction of Reality.” They argued that social reality is created and maintained through our everyday interactions.
Pragmatism
The focus on practical consequences: Pragmatism emphasizes the practical consequences of ideas and actions. This means that we should evaluate the worth of an idea or action based on its practical effects in the world.
The primacy of experience: Pragmatism is based on the belief that experience is the foundation of knowledge. We should not rely on abstract theories or concepts that are not grounded in our everyday experiences.
The importance of problem-solving: Pragmatism is a problem-solving philosophy. We should use our knowledge and experience to solve the practical problems that we face in our lives.
The rejection of absolute truths: Pragmatism rejects the idea of absolute truths. It argues that knowledge is always provisional and subject to change.
The emphasis on democracy: Pragmatism is often associated with democratic values. Pragmatist thinkers believe that democracy is the best way to make decisions about how to live our lives.
The rejection of dualism: Pragmatism rejects the distinction between mind and matter, subject and object. It argues that these are artificial distinctions that do not reflect the way the world works.
The emphasis on human agency: Pragmatism emphasizes the role of human agency in shaping the world. We have the power to make choices and to change our circumstances.
The belief in progress: Pragmatism is a forward-looking philosophy. It believes that we can improve the world through our actions.
Pragmatism has been influential in a wide range of social sciences, including sociology, anthropology, and political science. It has been used to study a variety of topics, including social inequality, culture, and democracy.
Here are some of the key figures in the development of Pragmatism:
Charles Sanders Peirce: An American philosopher who developed the pragmatist methodology. He argued that the meaning of a concept is determined by its practical consequences.
William James: An American philosopher who popularized Pragmatism. He argued that Pragmatism is a way of living as well as a philosophy.
John Dewey: An American philosopher who applied Pragmatism to education. He argued that education should be practical and problem-solving.
George Herbert Mead: An American philosopher who applied Pragmatism to sociology. He argued that social reality is constructed through our interactions.
Post-Structuralism
Post-structuralism is a broad and diverse intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-20th century in opposition to structuralism. Structuralism is a theory that emphasizes the importance of underlying structures in shaping human behavior and social life. Post-structuralists argue that structures are not fixed or stable, but rather fluid and constantly changing. They also argue that meaning is not inherent in texts or symbols, but is constructed through interpretation.
Some of the key ideas of post-structuralism include:
The deconstruction of binary oppositions: Post-structuralists argue that binary oppositions, such as male/female, mind/body, and nature/culture, are not natural or necessary, but rather are socially constructed and serve to maintain power hierarchies.
The decentering of the subject: Post-structuralists argue that the individual subject is not a unified, coherent entity, but is constantly fragmented and decentered. This means that our identities are not fixed or stable, but are constantly shifting and changing.
The emphasis on language: Post-structuralists argue that language is not a neutral tool for communication, but is instead a powerful tool that can be used to construct and maintain power relations.
The critique of metanarratives: Post-structuralists reject the idea of grand narratives, such as Marxism or Christianity, which claim to offer a comprehensive explanation of the world. They argue that these narratives are inherently oppressive and can be used to justify violence and oppression.
Post-structuralism has had a profound impact on the social sciences, particularly sociology, anthropology, and literary criticism. It has been used to challenge traditional notions of power, identity, and knowledge.
Here are some of the key figures in post-structuralism:
Michel Foucault: A French philosopher who studied the history of power and knowledge. He argued that power is not something that is held by individuals, but is instead dispersed throughout society.
Jacques Derrida: A French philosopher who developed the concept of deconstruction. He argued that texts and symbols are never stable, but are constantly open to interpretation.
Jean-François Lyotard: A French philosopher who wrote the influential book “The Postmodern Condition.” He argued that we are no longer living in a modern world characterized by grand narratives, but in a postmodern world characterized by fragmentation and uncertainty.
Julia Kristeva: A Bulgarian-French linguist, semiotician, philosopher, literary critic, and psychoanalyst. She is known for her work on femininity and semiotics.
- He used the concept “verstehen” – with Georg Simmel
- W engaged in the meaning, action and individual action
- Possible with an empathic or participatory understanding of social phenomena
- The goal is to identify human actions and interpret them as observable events – Which provides a good explanation for individual actions but also for group interactions.
- The meaning explains constraints and limitations and analyzes the motivation for action (advantage over a natural scientist)
- The concept is criticised – as the only means by which researchers from one culture can examine and explain behaviours in another.
- Schutz’s principal aim was to create a philosophical foundation for the social sciences – “Phenomen sociology”
- The ontologic question asks about the appearance of the lifeworld and reciprocal understanding of subjects
- The methodologic question: asks about the methods which can be used for this goal
- The lifeworld (daily life) is understandable – same for everyone
- The public world – people assume that it is the same for everyone
- “general reciprocity of perspectives”
- Theory of Social Behaviorism
- People develop self-images through interactions with other people. He argued that the self which is the part of a person’s personality consisting of self-awareness and self-image is a product of social experience
- “Me” – it is created in social interactions
- “I” – it is the personal EGO independent of the social environment
- The social construction of reality
- Social order exists only as a product of a human activity
- Society is a permanent process consisting of three parts
- Externalization
- Objectivization
- Internalization
- The reality of everyday life includes “typization schemes” – the social reality is an endless sequence of typizations
- Social structure – is a summary of these typizations → t
- This leads to institutionalization – shared typizations
- He started as a follower of “constructivism” – later he created his “Actor-Network Theory”
- He impeached the inevitability of the border between Nature and Society
- He sees the world as operating “hybrid actors” – they include both elements in them
- Objects can obtain qualities which were dedicated only to humans
- The examples can be: the expectation of roles or ethical dimensions or responsibility
- People and Non-people create groups – technology forces them
- to be more interacting (knotted, bound)
- Hyperreality is his concept which marks the inability to distinguish reality from a simulation of reality.
- This describes a state when reality and fiction converge and they interconnect mutually, it is impossible to distinguish what is real
- The prefix “hyper-” means that something is more real than real
- Two concepts of the theory
- Simulation – typical by blending reality and representation where is impossible to identify the borders
- Simulacrum – multiple rows of artificial worlds which are the base for the model of simulation (imitation or copies without an original