Pamela J. Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese
Overview
Mediating the Message in the 21st Century: A Media Sociology Perspective is a book by Pamela J. Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese that provides a comprehensive overview of media sociology in the 21st century. The book covers a wide range of topics, including the changing media landscape, the effects of media on individuals and society, and the role of media in shaping social and political discourse.
Shoemaker and Reese argue that media sociology is more important than ever in the 21st century, as media play an increasingly central role in our lives. They emphasize that media are not neutral conveyors of information, but rather active participants in the social world. They shape how we understand the world around us, and they can have a profound impact on our thoughts, our emotions, and our behaviors.
The book is divided into four sections:
- The Changing Media Landscape: This section examines the major trends in the media industry in recent years, such as the rise of digital media, the decline of traditional gatekeepers, and the increasing fragmentation of audiences.
- Media Effects: This section explores the various ways in which media can affect individuals and society, including agenda-setting, framing, cultivation, and socialization.
- Media and Social Order: This section examines the role of media in shaping social and political discourse, including the coverage of elections, social movements, and cultural issues.
- The Future of Media Sociology: This section discusses the challenges and opportunities facing media sociology in the 21st century.
Mediating the Message in the 21st Century is an essential resource for anyone who wants to understand the role of media in society. It is a well-written and accessible book that is packed with insights and information.
Here are some of the key takeaways from the book:
- Media are not neutral conveyors of information, but rather active participants in the social world.
- Media play a central role in shaping our understanding of the world around us.
- Media can have a profound impact on our thoughts, our emotions, and our behaviors.
- Media sociology is more important than ever in the 21st century.
The Hierarchical Model
Factors affecting media content can be usefully classified at several levels of analysis leading us to organize them into a larger model. Various theoretical perspectives have been laid out peviously on the shaping of media content, including as follows the suggested categories of Gans (1979) and Gitlin (1980).
- Content is influenced by media workers socialization and attitudes. This is a communicator-centered approach emphasizing the psychological factors impinging on an individual’s work: professiona, personal, and political.
- Content is influenced by media organizations and routines. This approach argues that content emerges directly from the nature of how media work is organized. The organizational routines within which an individual operates form a structure, constraining action while also enabling it.
- Content is influenced by other social institutions and forces. This approach finds the major impact on content lying external to organizations and the communicator: economic, political, and cultural forces. Audience pressures can be found in the “market” explanation of “giving the public what it wants”.
- Content is a function of ideological postitions and maintains the status quo. The so-called hegemony approach locates the major influence on media content as the pressures to support the status quo, to support the interests of those in power in society.
Media Content and Theory
In Chapter 1 “Media Content and Theory” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century”, Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese introduce the concept of a hierarchical model to explain the various levels of influence on media content. They argue that media content is shaped by a complex interplay of factors, ranging from the individual level to the social system level.
The hierarchical model includes the following levels of analysis:
Individual Level: The individual level focuses on the characteristics of media producers, such as their personal experiences, beliefs, and values. These factors can influence the decisions they make about what content to produce and how to present it.
Routine Practices Level: The routine practices level focuses on the everyday practices and norms of media organizations. These practices can influence the content of news and entertainment programs. For example, news organizations may have routines for covering certain types of events or for framing stories in a particular way.
Media Organization Level: The media organization level focuses on the structure and goals of media organizations. These factors can also influence the content of media products. For example, a news organization that is owned by a corporation may have different goals than a non-profit news organization.
Social Institutions Level: The social institutions level focuses on the broader social, political, and economic forces that influence media content. These institutions can set the agenda for media coverage and can influence the way that media content is produced and distributed.
Social System Level: The social system level focuses on the underlying values and beliefs of society. These values and beliefs can be reflected in media content, and they can also influence the way that people interpret and respond to media content.
Shoemaker and Reese argue that the hierarchical model provides a useful framework for understanding the complex factors that influence media content. They emphasize that no single level of analysis is sufficient to explain media content, and that all of the levels are interconnected.
Beyond Processes and Effects
In Chapter 2 “Beyond Processes and Effects” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century”, Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese explore the historical context of media effects research and discuss the limitations of traditional approaches to studying media effects. They argue that media effects research should move beyond the simple question of whether or not media have effects and instead focus on understanding the complex and multifaceted ways in which media influence individuals and society.
Shoemaker and Reese trace the history of media effects research, from its early focus on mass communication and propaganda to its more recent focus on social cognitive and cultural studies approaches. They argue that traditional approaches to media effects research have been limited by their focus on individual-level effects, their reliance on laboratory experiments and surveys, and their tendency to view media as a monolithic force.
Shoemaker and Reese call for a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of media effects. They argue that media effects should be studied at multiple levels of analysis, from the individual to the social system. They also argue that media effects should be studied in context, taking into account the social, political, and cultural factors that influence both the production and the reception of media messages.
In addition, Shoemaker and Reese discuss the importance of studying the uses and gratifications of media. They argue that people are not passive consumers of media messages, but rather active users who make choices about what media to consume and how to interpret it.
Finally, Shoemaker and Reese call for a more engaged and critical approach to media effects research. They argue that media effects research should be used to inform public debate about the role of media in society.
Here are some of the key points of Shoemaker and Reese’s argument:
- Traditional approaches to media effects research have been limited by their focus on individual-level effects, their reliance on laboratory experiments and surveys, and their tendency to view media as a monolithic force.
- Media effects should be studied at multiple levels of analysis, from the individual to the social system.
- Media effects should be studied in context, taking into account the social, political, and cultural factors that influence both the production and the reception of media messages.
- Media effects research should be informed by the uses and gratifications of media approach.
- Media effects research should be used to inform public debate about the role of media in society.
Mediating Reality
In Chapter 3 “Mediating Reality” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century”, Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese discuss the ways in which media shape our understanding of reality. They argue that media are not neutral mirrors of reality, but rather active participants in the process of defining and constructing reality.
Shoemaker and Reese begin by discussing the concept of framing, the way in which media present information in a way that influences how people interpret it. They argue that framing can have a significant impact on how people understand and respond to events.
They also discuss the concept of agenda-setting, the power of media to influence the public’s priorities and concerns. They argue that media can set the agenda for public discussion by focusing on certain issues and neglecting others.
In addition, Shoemaker and Reese discuss the concept of cultivation, the idea that media exposure can cultivate beliefs and attitudes in people that may not be based on their own experiences. They argue that media can cultivate a sense of fear, anxiety, or cynicism, even if these feelings are not justified by reality.
Finally, Shoemaker and Reese discuss the concept of the “symbolic environment,” the way in which media create a shared understanding of the world through the use of symbols and images. They argue that the symbolic environment can influence people’s perceptions of reality, their values, and their beliefs.
Here are some of the key points of Shoemaker and Reese’s argument:
- Media are not neutral mirrors of reality, but rather active participants in the process of defining and constructing reality.
- Framing is the way in which media present information in a way that influences how people interpret it.
- Agenda-setting is the power of media to influence the public’s priorities and concerns.
- Cultivation is the idea that media exposure can cultivate beliefs and attitudes in people that may not be based on their own experiences.
- The symbolic environment is the way in which media create a shared understanding of the world through the use of symbols and images.
Social Systems
n Chapter 4 “Social Systems” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century,” Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese examine the influence of macrosystem factors on media content, encompassing structural functionalism, Marxism, critical and cultural studies, hegemony, political economy, democratic pluralism, and world systems. They highlight how these broad societal forces shape the production, distribution, and consumption of media messages.
Shoemaker and Reese delve into the structural functionalist perspective, which emphasizes the role of media in maintaining social order and fulfilling essential functions within society. They discuss how media can contribute to social cohesion, norm transmission, and conflict resolution. However, they also acknowledge the potential for media to reinforce existing inequalities and perpetuate power imbalances.
From a Marxist perspective, Shoemaker and Reese examine the role of media as tools of ideological hegemony, controlled by the dominant class to maintain their power and influence. They discuss how media can represent the interests of the ruling class as universal, while marginalizing or silencing alternative viewpoints.
Critical and cultural studies approaches are explored to analyze the power dynamics embedded in media production and consumption. They emphasize how media messages are not neutral but rather reflect and reinforce societal power structures, including gender, race, and class inequalities. They also examine how audiences actively engage with media content, interpreting and challenging its messages.
The concept of hegemony, the dominance of one group’s ideology over others, is discussed in the context of media. Shoemaker and Reese explore how media can contribute to the establishment of hegemony by normalizing and naturalizing the values and beliefs of the dominant group.
Political economy approaches provide a framework for examining the economic forces influencing media content and production. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how media ownership, market structures, and advertising practices can shape the types of media messages that are produced and distributed.
Democratic pluralism is presented as a contrasting perspective, emphasizing the role of media in promoting diversity of viewpoints and fostering informed public discourse. They highlight the importance of media independence and access to a variety of perspectives in a democratic society.
World systems theory is discussed to examine the global context of media production and consumption. Shoemaker and Reese explore how media can contribute to the formation of global cultures and the shaping of international power relations.
In conclusion, Shoemaker and Reese emphasize the complex and multifaceted relationship between media and social systems. They encourage readers to critically analyze how macrosystem factors influence media content and to consider the broader implications of media messages for society as a whole.
Social Institutions
In Chapter 5 “Social Institutions” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century,” Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese explore the influence of social institutions on media content. They highlight how institutions such as government, education, religion, and the economy shape the production, distribution, and consumption of media messages.
Shoemaker and Reese emphasize that social institutions are not monolithic entities, but rather complex organizations with their own internal dynamics and power structures. They discuss how these institutions can exert influence on media content through various mechanisms, including direct regulation, funding, ownership, and informal norms and practices.
Government regulation of media content is a key aspect of social influence. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how governments can use laws, policies, and licensing requirements to control what media can be produced and distributed. They also highlight the role of government funding in shaping media content, particularly in the case of public broadcasting.
Media ownership patterns also play a significant role in determining the content of media outlets. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how media conglomerates and powerful individuals can exert influence on the editorial decisions of their news organizations. They also highlight the potential for conflicts of interest when media companies own other businesses or have close ties to political or economic interests.
Social institutions also influence media content through informal norms and practices. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how professional codes of ethics, unwritten rules within media organizations, and cultural norms can shape the way news is reported and stories are framed. They also highlight the role of media audiences in influencing media content through feedback, boycotts, and other forms of engagement.
In conclusion, Shoemaker and Reese emphasize the dynamic and evolving nature of the relationship between social institutions and media content. They encourage readers to critically analyze how social institutions shape the media landscape and to consider the implications of this influence for individuals and society.
Organizations
In Chapter 6 “Organizations” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century,” Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese examine the role of media organizations in shaping media content. They highlight how the internal structures, routines, and cultures of media organizations influence the production, distribution, and consumption of media messages.
Shoemaker and Reese emphasize that media organizations are not simply passive conduits of information, but rather active participants in the process of meaning-making. They discuss how the decisions made by media workers at all levels of the organization can have a significant impact on the content of media products.
Organizational routines, the habitual practices and procedures that govern the production of media content, play a key role in shaping media messages. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how routines can both facilitate and constrain the production of news and entertainment programming. They also highlight the importance of flexibility and adaptability in media organizations, as routines must be able to respond to changing circumstances and new technologies.
The culture of a media organization, the shared values, beliefs, and norms that characterize the organization, also influences media content. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how organizational culture can shape the way news is reported, stories are framed, and audiences are perceived. They also highlight the importance of diversity and inclusion in creating a healthy organizational culture that fosters creativity and innovation.
In addition to internal factors, media organizations are also influenced by external factors, such as audience preferences, market forces, and political pressures. Shoemaker and Reese discuss how media organizations must balance these external pressures with their internal commitments to journalistic standards and ethical principles.
Routines
In Chapter 7 “Routines” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century,” Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese examine the role of routines in shaping media content. They highlight how the everyday practices and habits of media workers influence the production, distribution, and consumption of media messages.
Shoemaker and Reese emphasize that routines are not simply mindless repetition, but rather a form of organizational intelligence that allows media organizations to produce a steady stream of content under pressure. They discuss how routines can help to ensure consistency and quality, but they also warn that they can become rigid and inflexible, hindering creativity and innovation.
The authors identify several key types of routines that are common in media organizations. These include:
- Gatekeeping routines: These routines determine what information is allowed into the newsroom and what is discarded. They are typically based on factors such as newsworthiness, timeliness, and relevance.
- Production routines: These routines govern the way news stories are produced, from gathering information to writing and editing. They are typically designed to ensure that stories are produced efficiently and accurately.
- Dissemination routines: These routines determine how news stories are distributed to audiences, through channels such as print, broadcast, and online. They are typically designed to reach the largest possible audience.
- Consumption routines: These routines determine how audiences consume news, through channels such as reading newspapers, watching television, or using social media. They are typically influenced by factors such as personal preferences, time constraints, and availability of technology.
Shoemaker and Reese also discuss how routines are influenced by the broader social, political, and economic environment. For example, they discuss how the rise of digital media has led to new routines for gathering and distributing information. They also discuss how changes in the economy can affect the resources available to media organizations, which can in turn affect their routines.
In conclusion, Shoemaker and Reese emphasize the importance of routines in shaping media content. They argue that routines are a necessary but not sufficient condition for producing high-quality journalism. They also encourage readers to critically analyze how routines can both facilitate and constrain the production of news and information.
Here are some of the key takeaways from the chapter:
- Routines are a form of organizational intelligence that allows media organizations to produce a steady stream of content under pressure.
- Routines can help to ensure consistency and quality, but they can also become rigid and inflexible, hindering creativity and innovation.
- Routines are influenced by the broader social, political, and economic environment.
- Routines are a necessary but not sufficient condition for producing high-quality journalism.
Individuals
n Chapter 8 “Individuals” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century,” Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese examine the role of individuals in shaping media content. They highlight how the personal beliefs, values, and experiences of media workers can influence the decisions they make about what content to produce and how to present it.
Shoemaker and Reese argue that individuals are not simply passive recipients of media messages, but rather active participants in the process of meaning-making. They discuss how individuals interpret and respond to media messages based on their own personal experiences and beliefs. They also highlight the role of media literacy in helping individuals to become more critical consumers of media content.
The authors identify several key factors that can influence the way individuals interpret and respond to media messages. These include:
- Personal experiences: Individuals’ own personal experiences can shape the way they interpret media messages. For example, someone who has experienced a traumatic event may be more likely to be affected by media coverage of similar events.
- Beliefs: Individuals’ beliefs can also influence the way they interpret media messages. For example, someone who believes that the media is biased may be more likely to question the accuracy of media reports.
- Values: Individuals’ values can also influence the way they interpret media messages. For example, someone who values social justice may be more likely to be drawn to media coverage of social issues.
- Media literacy: Media literacy is the ability to critically analyze and evaluate media messages. Individuals who are more media literate are better able to understand the biases and agendas of media organizations and to identify misleading or inaccurate information.
Shoemaker and Reese also discuss the role of media use in shaping individuals’ perceptions of the world. They argue that heavy media use can lead to cultivation effects, where individuals’ perceptions of reality are shaped by the media they consume. They also warn that heavy media use can lead to negative consequences, such as increased anxiety, depression, and aggression.
In conclusion, Shoemaker and Reese emphasize the importance of understanding the role of individuals in shaping media content. They argue that individuals are not simply passive consumers of media messages, but rather active participants in the process of meaning-making. They also encourage readers to develop their media literacy skills so that they can become more critical consumers of media content.
Here are some of the key takeaways from the chapter:
- Individuals are not simply passive recipients of media messages, but rather active participants in the process of meaning-making.
- Individuals interpret and respond to media messages based on their own personal experiences and beliefs.
- Media literacy is the ability to critically analyze and evaluate media messages.
- Heavy media use can lead to cultivation effects, where individuals’ perceptions of reality are shaped by the media they consume.
- Heavy media use can lead to negative consequences, such as increased anxiety, depression, and aggression.
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Hierarchical Model
In Chapter 9 “Studying the Hierarchical Model” of the book “Mediating the Message in the 21st Century,” Pamela Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese examine the research that has used their hierarchical model to understand media content. They discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the model, and they identify areas for future research.
Shoemaker and Reese begin by discussing the origins of the hierarchical model. They argue that the model was developed in response to the limitations of traditional approaches to studying media effects, which often focused on the individual level of analysis. The hierarchical model, in contrast, takes into account the multiple levels of influence that can shape media content, from the individual to the social system.
The authors then discuss the strengths of the hierarchical model. They argue that the model is flexible and adaptable, and that it can be used to study a wide variety of media phenomena. They also argue that the model is grounded in empirical research, and that it has been used to generate a number of important insights into the factors that influence media content.
However, Shoemaker and Reese also acknowledge some of the weaknesses of the hierarchical model. They argue that the model can be complex and difficult to apply, and that it can be challenging to isolate the effects of individual levels of influence. They also argue that the model is not always well-suited for studying new media, such as the internet and social media.
Despite these limitations, Shoemaker and Reese argue that the hierarchical model remains a valuable tool for understanding media content. They identify several areas for future research, including:
- Studying the interaction between different levels of influence: The hierarchical model suggests that the different levels of influence on media content interact with each other. However, more research is needed to understand how these interactions occur.
- Studying the effects of new media: The hierarchical model is not always well-suited for studying new media, such as the internet and social media. More research is needed to develop models that are better suited for studying these new forms of media.
- Studying the effects of media on individuals and society: Traditional approaches to studying media effects often focused on the individual level of analysis. However, more research is needed to understand the effects of media on society as a whole.
In conclusion, Shoemaker and Reese emphasize the importance of continuing to study the factors that influence media content. They argue that the hierarchical model remains a valuable tool for understanding media content, and they identify several areas for future research.
Here are some of the key takeaways from the chapter:
- The hierarchical model is a flexible and adaptable model that can be used to study a wide variety of media phenomena.
- The hierarchical model is grounded in empirical research, and it has been used to generate a number of important insights into the factors that influence media content.
- The hierarchical model can be complex and difficult to apply, and it can be challenging to isolate the effects of individual levels of influence.
- The hierarchical model is not always well-suited for studying new media, such as the internet and social media.
- More research is needed to study the interaction between different levels of influence on media content.
- More research is needed to study the effects of new media on individuals and society.