Methodology – Interpretive Research

• Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis IPA
• Grounded Theory – GT
• Narrative Analysis
• Discursive Methods
• Conversation Analysis
• Rhetorical Analysis
• Thematic Analysis

Interpretative phenomenological analysis – IPA

• The researcher explores the experience of one single person (or a unit)
• Lived experience – is a key term in this type of analysis
• The most important is to stick with the perspective of the informant
• Double hermeneutics – means merging the informant’s experience with the researcher’s personality added during an analysis

IPA – goals

• The main goal of IPA is to formulate topics which define the essence of the explored phenomenon
• A process of analysis starts with the first case (interview)
• Developing of insider’s perspective 
• Coding fieldnotes: semantic, similarities vs differences, summarizing, paraphrasing, associations

IPA – developing a topic

• During the analysis are rising new topics
• Searching for coincidences across the topics
• Some topics work as a magnet, they attract similar topics
• Some topics are superior to each other and the others become one
• Creating a structure of topics and naming these classes

IPA – what to notice

• A degree of abstraction
• Integration–related topics under one umbrella
• Polarization – differences between topics
• Contextualization – identifying narrative elements
• Frequency of occurrences
• Functions – finding positive or negative connotations
• Restructuralisation of topics

Grounded theory

• Is a research method which is grounded in data that has been systematically collected and analysed (Glaser and Strauss)
• Features:
  • Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously
  • Categories and codes developed from data
  • Abstract categories constructed inductively
  • Social processes discovered in the data
  • Analytical memos used between coding and writing
  • Categories integrated into a theoretical framework

• The foundation is clearly defining a question

• This is focused on a process or stages of a phenomenon

• The aim is to describe the rules of this process

• Glaser – claims that the question should be stated after contact with the terrain

• It means talking about the topic with future participants before the research design is done

Theoretical sensitivity

• A researcher is able to develop a theory that is grounded theoretically dense and cohesive
• It concerns the researcher being able to give meaning to data and understand what the data says. 
• And researcher is able to separate out what is relevant and what is not

Ground theory – research process

• Step 1 – research question
• Step 2 – collecting data
• Step 4 – creating concepts
• Step 5 – searching for theoretical relationships between concepts
• Step 6 – a choice of the central concepts and formulation of a theory

GT – Analysis – open coding

• “open coding” – The aim is to conceptualize data – creating essential terms
• Concepts and key phares are identified and highlighted and moved into subcategories…
• This breaks the data down into conceptual components
• The researcher can start to theorise or reflect on the content and understand the sense of the data
• The data from each participant will be constantly compared for similarities

GT analysis – coding

• Axial coding- at this stage relationships are identified between the categories and connections identified
• Selective coding: this involves identifying the core category and methodically relating it to other categories. Categories are then integrated together and GT identified

GT – Core Category

• Is the chief phenomenon around which the categories are built. 
• The theory is generated around a core category
• The core category should account for the variation found in the data, and the categories will relate to it in some way.

Narrative analysis

• Refers to a cluster of analytic methods for interpreting texts or visual data that have a storied form
• A common assumption of the narrative method is:
  • People tell stories to help organize information and make sense of their lives
  • Their storied accounts are functional and purposeful
• Different approaches of NA are categorized whether they focus on the structure or content of narratives

Narrative analysis is a qualitative data analysis method that focuses on understanding the meaning of stories. It was developed by sociologists and psychologists in the 1980s and has since become a widely used method in qualitative research.

Core principles of narrative analysis:

• Focus on stories: Narrative analysis focuses on understanding the meaning of stories, which are considered to be fundamental to human experience and understanding.

• Focus on interpretation: Narrative analysis emphasizes the role of interpretation in understanding the meaning of stories, as stories can have multiple interpretations.

• Focus on context: Narrative analysis recognizes that stories are embedded in a social, cultural, and historical context, and that they can only be fully understood in light of that context.

Key steps in narrative analysis:

1. Transcription: Transcribe the data verbatim.

2. Narrative identification: Identify the stories within the data.

3. Narrative analysis: Analyze the structure, content, and function of the stories.

4. Narrative interpretation: Interpret the meaning of the stories in light of the context.

5. Narrative representation: Represent the findings in a way that is both accurate and meaningful.

Benefits of using narrative analysis:

• Provides a deep understanding of stories: Narrative analysis can provide a rich and nuanced understanding of the meaning of stories.

• Captures the subjective perspective: Narrative analysis is well-suited for capturing the subjective perspective of storytellers.

• Helps to make sense of lived experience: Narrative analysis can help to make sense of lived experience by providing a framework for interpreting stories.

• Flexible and adaptable: Narrative analysis can be adapted to study a wide variety of topics and research questions.

Examples of narrative analysis:

• A study of how people tell stories of trauma.

• A study of how people make sense of their identity through stories.

• A study of how stories are used to shape social and cultural understandings.

DISCURSIVE METHODS

Discourse analysis is an approach to the analysis of language that focuses on how language is used to construct meaning and social reality. It was developed by a range of scholars, including Michel Foucault, Stuart Hall, and Norman Fairclough.

Core principles of discourse analysis:

• Focus on language: Discourse analysis focuses on how language is used to construct meaning and social reality.

• Social construction: Discourse analysis recognizes that language is not a neutral medium for conveying information, but rather a social and political tool.

• Power: Discourse analysis examines how language is used to maintain or challenge power relations.

• Context: Discourse analysis recognizes that language is always used in a context, and that the meaning of language is shaped by that context.

Key steps in discourse analysis:

1. Transcription: Transcribe the data verbatim.

2. Framing: Identify the overall framing of the discourse.

3. Lexical analysis: Analyze the vocabulary used in the discourse.

4. Grammatical analysis: Analyze the grammar of the discourse.

5. Ideological analysis: Analyze the ideological content of the discourse.

6. Representational analysis: Analyze how the discourse represents different social groups or identities.

7. Critical analysis: Critically evaluate the power relations embedded in the discourse.

Benefits of using discourse analysis:

• Provides a deeper understanding of language: Discourse analysis can provide a rich and nuanced understanding of how language is used to construct meaning.

• Identifies power relations: Discourse analysis can help to identify and challenge power relations embedded in language.

• Helps to make sense of social and cultural phenomena: Discourse analysis can help to make sense of social and cultural phenomena by examining the language used to describe them.

• Flexible and adaptable: Discourse analysis can be adapted to study a wide variety of topics and research questions.

Examples of discourse analysis:

• A study of how political discourse is used to shape public opinion.

• A study of how media discourse is used to construct stereotypes.

• A study of how everyday conversations are used to maintain social hierarchies.

Overall, discourse analysis is a powerful and versatile tool for understanding the role of language in constructing meaning and social reality. It can be used to study a wide range of topics and research questions.

• Usually called discourse analysis
• The key of the different method is the recognition of the vital role of discourse in social life
• An approach to language as social practice instead of a pahtway to inner cognitive entities (social constructionism)
• The term discourse is used to refer to virtually any language use and is considered interpretative repertoires (recurrently used units of content)

Conversational analysis

Conversation analysis (CA) is a qualitative research method that systematically studies the structure and function of naturally occurring conversations. It was developed by Harvey Sacks, Emanuel Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson in the 1960s.

Core principles of CA:

• Focus on naturally occurring conversation: CA focuses on analyzing naturally occurring conversation, rather than data that is elicited or manipulated by researchers.

• Formal analysis: CA employs a formal analysis of conversation, focusing on the sequential organization and patterns of language use.

• Action orientation: CA views conversation as an action-oriented activity, where participants use language to achieve specific goals.

• Recipient design: CA emphasizes the fact that speakers design their utterances to be understood by their recipients.

• Embodied interaction: CA recognizes that conversation is an embodied activity, with speakers using gesture, posture, and facial expression to convey meaning.

Key steps in CA:

1. Transcription: Transcribe the data verbatim, capturing the details of language use, including pauses, overlaps, and non-verbal cues.

2. Basic analysis: Identify the basic structures of conversation, such as turn-taking and adjacency pairs.

3. Sequential analysis: Analyze the sequential organization of conversation, examining how utterances are related to each other.

4. Action analysis: Analyze the actions that speakers perform in conversation, such as requests, apologies, and compliments.

5. Membership categorization: Analyze how speakers use membership categories to categorize themselves and others.

6. Institutional talk: Analyze how conversation is shaped by institutional contexts, such as classrooms and doctor’s offices.

Benefits of using CA:

• Provides a detailed and nuanced understanding of conversation: CA can provide a rich and insightful understanding of how conversation is organized and how participants use language to achieve their goals.

• Identifies patterns and regularities in conversation: CA can help to identify patterns and regularities in conversation that might not be apparent to casual observers.

• Helps to understand the social and cultural context of conversation: CA can help to understand the social and cultural context in which conversation takes place.

• Flexible and adaptable: CA can be adapted to study a wide variety of conversations, from everyday interactions to institutional settings.

Examples of CA research:

• A study of how turn-taking is used in conversation.

• A study of how people use apologies to repair damaged relationships.

• A study of how people use membership categories to construct their identities.

• CA refers to a specific approach to the analysis of interaction (Harvey Sacks)
• CA is interested to understand social order by focusing analytically on the sequence of talk in interaction 
• And on the ways, how participants organize mundane conversation

Thematic analysis

thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within qualitative data. It is a flexible method that can be used with a variety of data types, including interview transcripts, focus group transcripts, field notes, and documents.

Core principles of thematic analysis:

• Focus on themes: Thematic analysis aims to identify and analyze recurring patterns or themes within qualitative data.

• Data-driven approach: Thematic analysis is a data-driven approach, meaning that the themes emerge from the data itself.

• Inductive and iterative: Thematic analysis is an inductive and iterative process, meaning that the themes are identified and refined through an ongoing cycle of analysis.

• Flexible and adaptable: Thematic analysis is a flexible and adaptable method that can be used with a variety of data types and research questions.

Steps in thematic analysis:

1. Data familiarization: Read through the data repeatedly to gain a general sense of the content and identify potential themes.

2. Data coding: Code the data using keywords or phrases that represent key ideas or concepts.

3. Theme identification: Identify recurring patterns or themes within the coded data.

4. Theme development: Develop descriptions and definitions for each theme.

5. Theme organization: Organize the themes into a hierarchical structure.

6. Interpretation: Interpret the meaning of the themes in light of the research question and wider context.

7. Reporting: Present the findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, charts, and quotes to illustrate the themes.

Benefits of using thematic analysis:

• Provides a systematic way to analyze qualitative data: Thematic analysis provides a structured and systematic approach to analyzing qualitative data, which can help to ensure that the analysis is rigorous and comprehensive.

• Can be used with a variety of data types: Thematic analysis can be used with a variety of data types, including interview transcripts, focus group transcripts, field notes, and documents.

• Flexible and adaptable: Thematic analysis is a flexible and adaptable method that can be used to study a wide range of research questions.

• Can be used to identify and analyze complex patterns: Thematic analysis can be used to identify and analyze complex patterns within qualitative data.

Examples of thematic analysis research:

• A study of how people experience and cope with chronic pain.

• A study of how people make sense of their identity after a traumatic event.

• A study of how people experience and interpret their social interactions.

• A definition what thematic analysis means is quite inconsistent
• Mainly, it involves coding qualitative data into clusters of similar entities or conceptual categories
• Identification of consistent patterns and relationships between themes

Rhetorical analysis

rhetorical analysis is a critical method for examining how language is used to persuade, inform, or entertain an audience. It can be applied to a wide range of texts, including speeches, essays, advertisements, and even everyday conversations.

Core principles of rhetorical analysis:

• Focus on persuasion: Rhetorical analysis focuses on how language is used to persuade an audience to believe or do something.

• Consideration of context: Rhetorical analysis considers the context in which the text was created and how it would have been received by the original audience.

• Identification of rhetorical devices: Rhetorical analysis identifies and analyzes the rhetorical devices that are used in the text, such as metaphors, figures of speech, and appeals to emotion or logic.

• Interpretation of meaning: Rhetorical analysis interprets the meaning of the text and the impact that it has on the audience.

• Consideration of ethical implications: Rhetorical analysis considers the ethical implications of the text and the ways in which it may manipulate or mislead the audience.

Steps in rhetorical analysis:

1. Identify the rhetorical context: Consider the historical, social, and cultural context in which the text was created.

2. Analyze the audience: Consider the intended audience and their likely reactions to the text.

3. Identify the rhetorical purpose: Determine the author’s or speaker’s purpose in creating the text.

4. Identify the rhetorical devices: Identify the rhetorical devices that are used in the text.

5. Analyze the effectiveness of the rhetorical devices: Evaluate how effectively the rhetorical devices are used.

6. Interpret the meaning of the text: Interpret the meaning of the text and consider the impact that it has on the audience.

7. Consider the ethical implications: Consider the ethical implications of the text and the ways in which it may manipulate or mislead the audience.

Benefits of using rhetorical analysis:

• Increased critical thinking: Rhetorical analysis can help to develop critical thinking skills by providing a framework for analyzing the persuasive techniques used in language.

• Deeper understanding of texts: Rhetorical analysis can provide a deeper understanding of texts by revealing the underlying rhetorical strategies that are employed by the author or speaker.

• Able to identify bias and manipulation: Rhetorical analysis can help to identify bias and manipulation in texts by revealing the rhetorical devices that are used to influence the audience.

• Improved communication skills: Rhetorical analysis can improve communication skills by providing insights into how language can be used effectively to persuade, inform, or entertain an audience.

Examples of rhetorical analysis research:

• A study of how Martin Luther King Jr. used rhetorical devices in his “I Have a Dream” speech.

• A study of how advertisers use rhetorical appeals to sell products.

• A study of how political leaders use rhetoric to gain and maintain power.

• Interest in rhetoric also arose as part of the discursive turn
• The key text constitutes Arguing and Thinking (Billig 1987)
• This helps deeper understanding of how to approach analytically context and content in qualitative research by advocating the need to consider the rhetorical relation between topics (as units of analysis)