Positivism, Empiricism, Relativism, Structuralism
Positivism (Comte, Durkheim)
Positivism is a philosophical and methodological approach to social science that emphasizes the use of scientific methods to study social phenomena. Positivists believe that social phenomena can be studied in the same objective and value-free way that natural scientists study the physical world.
Some of the key tenets of positivism include:
The belief that social phenomena can be explained by objective laws: Positivists believe that social phenomena are caused by underlying laws that can be discovered through empirical observation and experimentation.
The use of quantitative data: Positivists rely heavily on quantitative data, such as statistics and surveys, to study social phenomena. They believe that quantitative data is more objective and reliable than qualitative data, such as interviews and participant observation.
The rejection of subjective interpretation: Positivists believe that social science should be value-free and objective. They argue that subjective interpretation can distort our understanding of social phenomena and lead to biased conclusions.
Positivism has been a dominant force in social science throughout much of the 20th century. However, it has also been the subject of much criticism, particularly from interpretivist and postmodernist scholars. Critics argue that positivism is unable to capture the complexity and fluidity of social life, and that it ignores the role of human agency and interpretation.
Despite these criticisms, positivism continues to be a significant force in social science. It remains a popular approach among quantitative social scientists, and it has been applied to a wide range of social phenomena, from crime and education to poverty and inequality.
Here are some of the key figures in positivism:
Auguste Comte: A French philosopher and sociologist who is considered to be the founder of positivism. He argued that social science should be based on the same principles as the natural sciences.
Émile Durkheim: A French sociologist who developed the concept of social facts. He argued that social facts are external to individuals and have a coercive influence on their behavior.
Max Weber: A German sociologist who developed the concept of verstehen. He argued that social scientists need to understand the subjective meanings that people attach to their actions.
Robert K. Merton: An American sociologist who developed the concept of middle-range theory. He argued that social scientists should develop theories that are specific enough to be tested empirically, but general enough to be applicable to a wide range of social phenomena.
- The main traits of positivism are stated.
- An object of science can be only facts
- Entire true and valuable knowledge can be reached only by empirical methods
- Progress of human knowledge is being created by the permanent cumulation of attainment
- Any reality can be investigated by similar methods, the ideal model is the natural science
- These methods can solve socio-politics and ethical issues
Empiricism (Lazarsfeld)
Empiricism is the philosophical belief that knowledge comes from experience and observation. In social sciences, empiricism is the foundation of the scientific method. Empiricists believe that social phenomena can be studied and understood through systematic observation and data collection.
There are two main types of data that social scientists use to study the social world:
Quantitative data: Quantitative data is numerical data that is collected through surveys, experiments, and other quantitative methods. It is often used to measure things like poverty rates, crime rates, and voting patterns.
Qualitative data: Qualitative data is non-numerical data that is collected through interviews, focus groups, and other qualitative methods. It is often used to understand the subjective experiences of individuals and groups.
Empiricist social scientists use a variety of methods to collect data, including:
Surveys: Surveys are questionnaires that are given to a large sample of people. They are often used to collect quantitative data about people’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Experiments: Experiments are controlled studies that are used to test hypotheses about the cause and effect relationships between social variables. They are often used to collect quantitative data.
Observational studies: Observational studies involve systematically observing people and their behavior in their natural settings. They are often used to collect qualitative data.
Case studies: Case studies involve in-depth investigations of particular individuals, groups, or events. They are often used to collect qualitative data.
Empiricism is a powerful tool for studying the social world, but it is not without its limitations. One limitation of empiricism is that it is difficult to study subjective experiences and beliefs using quantitative methods. Another limitation is that it can be difficult to control for all of the variables that might influence social phenomena.
- The extreme position of empiricism means to reducing all the cognitive action to obtaining data by a quantitative approach
- This approach declines theories as a source of hypotheses or the basis of research
- This is also connected with rejecting to obtain more complex knowledge from research
Relativism (Feyerabend)
Relativism is a philosophical position that holds that truth and knowledge are relative to the individual or group that holds them. In social sciences, relativism is often used to argue that there is no single, objective truth about social phenomena. Instead, there are multiple perspectives on the same issue, and each perspective is equally valid from its own point of view.
There are two main types of relativism:
Epistemological relativism: Epistemological relativism is the belief that there is no single, objective way to know the truth. Instead, knowledge is always subjective and relative to the individual or group that holds it.
Normative relativism: Normative relativism is the belief that there are no universal moral or ethical truths. Instead, morality and ethics are relative to the individual or group that holds them.
Relativism has been a controversial topic in social sciences, but it has also been a valuable tool for understanding the diversity of human experience. Relativism can help us to avoid ethnocentrism, which is the belief that one’s own culture is superior to all others. Relativism can also help us to understand the importance of cultural context, which is the idea that social phenomena can only be understood in the context of the culture in which they occur.
Despite its merits, relativism has also been criticized for its potential to lead to moral relativism, which is the belief that there are no universal moral standards. Critics argue that moral relativism can lead to a breakdown of social order and the justification of harmful or unethical practices.
Overall, relativism is a complex and multifaceted philosophical position that has been influential in social sciences. It has helped us to understand the diversity of human experience, but it has also been criticized for its potential to lead to moral relativism. It is important to use relativism critically and to be aware of its limitations.
Structuralism (Levi-Strauss)
Structuralism is a school of thought in the social sciences that emphasizes the importance of underlying structures in shaping human behavior and social life. Structuralists believe that these structures are not directly observable, but rather they are the underlying patterns or rules that govern social life. They argue that these structures are not static, but rather they are constantly changing and evolving.
Some of the key tenets of structuralism include:
The belief in the existence of underlying structures: Structuralists believe that social life is not simply the product of individual actions and choices, but rather it is also shaped by underlying structures. These structures can be social, cultural, or economic.
The emphasis on language and symbols: Structuralists argue that language and symbols are important tools for understanding social structures. They believe that these tools can be used to decode the underlying patterns of meaning that govern social life.
The rejection of individualism: Structuralists reject the idea that individuals are the sole actors in social life. They argue that individuals are shaped by the structures in which they are embedded.
The focus on social order: Structuralists are interested in understanding how social order is maintained. They argue that structures play a key role in maintaining social order by providing a framework for social interaction.
Structuralism has been influential in a wide range of social sciences, including sociology, anthropology, and linguistics. It has been used to study a variety of topics, including social stratification, kinship, and language.
Here are some of the key figures in structuralism:
Claude Levi-Strauss: A French anthropologist who is considered to be one of the founders of structuralism. He developed the concept of structural anthropology, which uses structural analysis to study kinship, myth, and other aspects of culture.
Roland Barthes: A French literary critic who developed the concept of semiology, which is the study of signs and symbols. He used semiology to analyze texts, images, and other cultural artifacts.
Louis Althusser: A French philosopher who developed the concept of structural Marxism, which applies structuralist analysis to Marxist theory. He argued that social structures are not simply economic in nature, but also include political and cultural structures.
Michel Foucault: A French philosopher who developed the concept of discourse analysis, which examines how language is used to create and maintain power relations. He argued that power is not simply repressive, but it can also be productive and creative.
Structuralism – Summary
- Aspires to grasp an object of research not only the single fact or concept but as a totality which includes parts of reality which have relationships to each other.
- Structuralism does not focus on parts which create the entire reality but more on bounds between the parts and also an order where this ties are develooping
- The name “positivism” is based on the positive philosophy of Comte and his philosophy of history.
- Knowledge is rooted in facts in contradiction to opinions based on speculation
- He stated the unity of six meanings (in this context)
- Real vs illusive
- Useful vs useless
- Certain vs indecisive (irresolute)
- Exact vs vague (wispy)
- Positive vs negative
- Relative vs absolute
- He lacked more ways to obtain empirical data – in thinking of his positivistic antecedents
- They are concerned only about ideas and not reality
- They used facts only as support for their ideas created by speculation
- Sociologie should focus on research of “social facts”
- These facts should be explored empirically
- Things can’t be investigated only by mental activity
- Social facts are exterior and they create pressure on individuals
- Material – they are structural components of society (architecture, law)
- Non-material – it is morality or collective consciousness – values, culture
- Social facts are like things – realities existing outside the individual mind.
- He claims that individuals have to be subordinated to the collectivity (vs. Spencer)
- His positivistic typology of societies is built on his ideas of “solidarity”
Solidarity Is connected with “division of labour” and it can be mechanical or organic
Mechanic solidarity is found in undeveloped societies, where all people do similar tasks and they feel the same emotions agree with the same values. But they are interchangeable in the system as the parts of the mechanical system.
Organic solidarity arises where the division of labour is developed and the integrity of the society is a result of the differentiation of individuals. Differences are based on their specialization.
- He performs his epistemological approach in his research about suicide.
- He uses the theoretical concept of “Anomie”. It is defined as a state of society where no rules are valid. In Durkheim’s perspective, it can cause an increased rate of suicidality.
- He defined four types of suicide
- Altruistic, egoistic, fatalistic and anomic
- He brought guidance how to transfer concepts to instruments of the research
- This concept is called operationalization
- Operationalization has to run always when we want to do any research
- This proces is divided to four simple steps
- First step: is to articulate an initial idea which is depicted by the thinking of empirical phenomenon
- Second step: This general imagination must be specified. The original idea is divided to:
- Components, dimensions, aspects or other specifications
- Third step: The dimensions are assigned with indicators and instruments of measurement
- Fourth step: Summation of the indicators into one index
Aggregated indicators are the result of pragmatic thinking in that it provides an option to distinguish between the states of the phenomenon
This model supposes that there is a variety of possible indicators which can be chosen
Correlated indicators are interchangeable
- He states that the only reasonable approach to the methodology in science is to cancel all methodic rules
- He demurred against each prescriptive scientific method
- These reduce the activity of scientists and brake progress
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An example of his critic notes is pointing to “criterion of consistence” which says that the new theory must be in harmony with the old theory and is non-sense, which gives an advantage to the old theory.
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Epistemological relativism means that knowledge and the truth are valid only in a certain schema → which is why it rejected the objective truth which is not in the paradigm
- Theoretic pluralism means that every theory can contribute to the development of science.
- He abandoned pluralism in 60 and he radicalized his approach (relativism)
- The empirical facts are not necessary to construct and test the theory
- He rejects any methods
Feyerabend’s conception:
- Scientific methods do not provide rules suitable to the scientific work
- Single scientific theories are not comparable
- Scientific knowledge is not necessarily superior to the knowledge of another kind
- Elimination of limiting methods ignites creativity.
- He tried to apply the structural method to exploring relations rituals and myths in societies without script and history
- He was seeking, under the existing relationships”, the basic familiar structure which is possible to reveal with abstract models because all people think in the same manner.
- In his perspective, the logic used by a primitive man does not differ from the logic used by a member of the evolved society.
- If the subconscious structure is revealed, the general principle on how the other institution and customs are established.